i think you're all crazy for getting rid of your optical drives: notes from a technophile luddite

asking around, it's clear that almost nobody has optical drives around their home anymore, unless they have a blu-ray player or a game console attached to a television. young people in particular simply do not have access to an optical drive in their life. in truth most people don't seem to care and won't miss them, convinced that streaming provides a convenient and inexpensive push-button, remote-control access to everything that matters. the removal of bulky optical drives from laptops makes them thin and sexy, because the market has been repeatedly convinced by Apple Computer that thin and sexy is the best thing for laptops to be. and look at that – Apple has a streaming store, one of the first big ones on the internet. how convenient that for almost ten years now they haven’t allowed their customers the choice to have an optical drive in their systems

forget the fact that independent media productions are almost universally locked out of the streaming services that people actually use (except youtube, a platform on which the only way to make any money at all is to be immensely popular). ignore the ability to trade media with friends or like-minded communities, to borrow media from libraries, purchase titles from around the world, or sell media on used markets when the user is finished using it. nevermind the fact that streaming services in fact have only a very limited archive of media currently available, and almost universally present little depth or breadth to their available media: no controversy, no history, nothing which is too weird or hard to understand, nothing from other times or other countries. just the same collection of corporate material found on walmart shelves and gas station discount bins three for five dollars. these are inconveniences, certainly, but the more significant reason that i think everyone should keep an optical drive around is control

it is important to recognise that tangible benefits do exist for media streaming, not the least of which are environmental in nature. while streaming services use more electricity than Netflix, Apple, or indeed almost everyone would like to admit, over a period longer than ten years optical media have a tendency to end up not on the shelves of domestic or public libraries but rather in landfills, and at many times in their lifespan their physical presence signals the expenditure of gasoline for shipping. it is encouraging that optical media are able to be industrially recycled, but since doing so costs money which municipalities are not paying, only the most dedicated and wealthy consumer would ever worry about the environmental footprint of their optical media use and take the time to expensively ship their garbage discs to recyclers. furthermore, from the point of view of media users it is far more convenient to select a film from a streaming archive than to go to a store or shop online for an optical disc. streaming services also allow access to a more broad community of users, as geographical isolation tends to cohabitate with media isolation. with access to streaming services, rural communities are less dependent on the habits or economic realities of their local retail store owners, for example. the immediacy of the archive provokes a false sense of media expertise, of falsely enjoying a position of privilege and control. “i’m no sucker,” says the Netflix streamer. “i am more in control over my media experiences than anyone ever before”

however, it is not likely that Netflix will ever pick up that interesting bela tarr film people sometimes write about. those interesting Iranian films from the 1980s, 1990s, and early 2000s which poetically blended fiction and non-fiction into potent political allegories are not likely to be bought by streaming services, given the chameleon nature of geopolitical happenstance. inspired by a friend’s recent binge of japanese underground cyberpunk films of the 1990s, a search online only leads to disappointment when learning that no current service offers even Tetsuo the Iron Man, which is a million times more visible than any of the other weirdo films mentioned by that friend. in fact Netflix has nothing at all approaching sections for art and experimental films, silent films or the early hollywood studio era, european modernism, Bollywood musicals, or guerilla documentaries from the margins of latin american and african post-colonialism. due to competing licensing concerns, Netflix isn't even the best place for blockbuster films, as the studios are slowly trying to each have their own smaller netflixes, presenting a future in which fans collect apps instead of movies or music

while Spotify is smart enough to have licensed weirdos such as :zoviet*france: to their platform, the business model they offer to artists (aka no money at all) will not allow the next weirdo band to emerge, unless those weirdos happen to be independently wealthy. my guess is that if they are still around in twenty years, Spotify will be a frontend for Top40 artists whose new licenses give them copyright access to the archives of recorded music history for free 'as a service to their fans'. sure, weirdos and independent media could set up their own websites to allow consumers access, but the reality is that those attempts rarely work. as any independent media person could tell you, the vast majority of people simply will not go out of their way to access your independent media. in the early days of the internet david bowie and prince offered fans a direct sales model which in addition to music and video material also provided email and music licensing services, but not too many people used them. it is definitely tough for artists to sell to fans directly, however with optical drives at least there remains a possibility for such an exchange to occur. randomly go to a bar and be impressed by the band to the point where you buy a disc – it can be played in any optical disc player. some random street vendor in taipei is selling local music on disc – it can be played in any optical disc player. for a long time profits in the music industry were sustained by artificially inflated compact disc prices, and consumers were rightly pissed at being asked to pay $15 for 74 minutes of crap to hear the 5-minute song they actually wanted to purchase. but streaming and downloading music does not sabotage the profits of the record industry, whose artists are essentially multinational media investments backed by sufficient financial capital to use 'songs' and 'music' as advertisements for fan participation in a celebrity 'experience'. music fans who don't pay for music are not 'striking back at the industry'; they are failing to provide artists who aren't superstars with a revenue stream on which they can tour and produce music, rent an apartment, and buy food

now that optical drives are increasingly not owned by media consumers, the vast majority of optical disc content not transferred to streaming services will remain arcane mysteries except to the most dedicated of media scholars, existing as a hazy ‘there-be-dragons’ cloud of bytes locked behind an artificially antiquated viewing practice. after all, in both cases the viewing practice is the same; what has changed is the means of distribution, with new forms of distribution falling under the control of an increasingly smaller elite of corporate entities. after a number of years teaching film and media studies classes, it is clear to me that media content which is not immediately clickable simply does not exist for the streaming generation. content is somewhat secondary to convenience of access: students will click and watch a maya deren film on youtube, but will not watch an older version of Star Wars on DVD. perhaps such is inevitable, and the media consumption of the masses has always been of concern to media scholars, but i understand the termination of access to physical media as signalling something else, something a bit more consequential. not quite the tired end-of-history talk common to end-of-media discourse, but worry rather about a more precisely prescribed history to come

the point i wish to make here is much less about what is available on streaming services than what is made unavailable by the loss of optical media drives. as a Netflix subscriber myself – for the tv shows they produce – this article is not intended to convince anyone to drop their subscriptions. rather, i want people to reconsider the loss of an optical drive from their lives. optical drives are relatively open standards, whereas online streaming protocols are not. anyone incorporated or not can freely produce material (granted, within the confines of national obscenity laws) and distribute it to media consumers who have a technical platform capable of reproducing it. of course there exist a number of methods to restrict access to the optical disc as an open platform, most notably the numerous digital rights management (DRM) methods implemented for the protection of copyrighted materials. while optical drives attached to computers provide the greatest amount of flexibility for reproducing the contents of optical media, consumer optical devices such as compact disc, DVD, and blu-ray players are also relatively open platforms when the inexpensive and often freely-available protocols they use are adhered to. in other words, any musician, individual, or company may produce and sell any audio signal they want knowing that disc will be reproduced properly for all listeners so long as the disc conforms to the ‎IEC 60908 protocol for audio reproduction (also known as redbook audio for compact discs). currently there exists millions of individual media titles on optical disc formats and all of them can be reproduced by all users of optical disc drives. the paradoxical point here being made is that in practice optical drives are more open as a media distribution standard than is a digital network connection

no such analogy as independent music exists with streaming services. let us put aside the false binary of physical and non-physical media, for streaming services and file sharing and every other computational medium is a complex articulation of silicon chips, magnetic and electrical storage devices, network hardware, software protocols, and financial assets which all manifest as physical ‘things’ whose physical use and ownership have physical and non-physical implications on the media they deliver (the ‘internet of things’ is really just ‘more things on the internet’, the continued application of the physicality of networked computation to an increasing number of ‘things’). i watched as friends sold off their disc collection after ripping their music and movies to hard drives. after all, why keep the disc when it can be sold and my friend can keep watching their rip? consumers empowered by optical disc rips enjoy a false mastery over the consumer market however, as over the long term – say longer than ten years or so – that rip and sell strategy does not work unless my friend has a professional data management plan in place, ensuring yearly backups to new hardware with file integrity validation procedures. hard drives crash, operating systems and user activity often fail to keep data intact, and magnetically-recorded bits can flip polarity (1’s become 0’s and 0’s become 1’s) over time, and unless a person has expertise in long-term film management or is paying someone else to have that expertise for them it is almost certain that they will lose access to their data at some point, and probably much sooner than they expected. much as many users lost access to the files they kept on floppy disks but did not transfer to a hard drive before purchasing a computer lacking a floppy drive (Apple users who in the late 1990s purchased the first iMacs as perhaps the most famous example), users who expect permanence to their files often forget that those files exist as physical instantiations, with access requiring a performative interpretation by a specific hardware architecture. as this truth renders computational media highly volatile and fragile, it is best to embrace open rather than proprietary standards. the point, and one which for many readers will perhaps be overly belaboured, is that optical drives represent a significant open standard which we should not be so quick to abandon

that being said, it is indeed possible to discuss some issues related to a changed physicality. it is not possible to ‘lend’ or ‘sell’ streamed media after use, and it is not possible for content to be shared between services or with users who have not subscribed to any service, or with devices incompatible with the service. for example, for DRM purposes Netflix currently requires computer users to have very specific processor and operating system architectures in order to stream 4k video, chipsets so specific in fact that computer users who are not official ‘Microsoft Insiders’ as part of the Windows 10 operating system subscription model are not able to stream 4k content. Apple mac users cannot officially stream Netflix in 4k and are forced to either hackintosh a workaround or limit themselves to 4k selections in iTunes. streaming is a tenuous network of gardens walled by proprietary protocols and DRM efforts and held together by legal and financial discursive practices, whose commercial existence precludes any function as a stable personal archive or cultural repository. here's the thing about streaming that media consumers aren't considering: all those streams exist on servers owned by companies which are guaranteed to either 1) go out of business at some point, or 2) be acquired by a larger media conglomerate. when either of these eventualities happens, the licensing arrangements media consumers previously made with companies become null and void. long story short, consumers get to purchase their media access all over again, and in the process it is guaranteed that specific titles will become lost in the legal shuffle, unavailable once a user has reset their subscriptions

while this process (of legal ‘censorship’) occurs with formats previous to optical media (witness for example the loss on home video media due to music licensing arrangements of many sequences from the originally broadcasted episodes of WKRP In Cincinnati), but this process is exacerbated by the ease with which streaming services and other media companies change their relationships with their customers. for example, Netflix periodically removes content for reasons related more to marketing concerns rather than licensing issues. another example involves the digital game series No One Lives Forever (NOLF), well-produced parodies of James Bond and the 60’s spy tv show fad with a solid female protagonist and released by Fox Interactive on computers between 2000 and 2003. as the copyright for the series is enmeshed in a complex history of corporate mergers, bankruptcies, and acquisitions while the companies involved are not allowing anyone to license the game for sale while not themselves selling it (despite the games’ first-person action mechanics remaining commercially viable in 2018), the only way for anyone to currently play NOLF is to purchase a retail copy of the game on the collector’s market. while the game is neither easily nor inexpensively acquired, it is possible to do so only as long as one has access to an optical drive. more to the point, if you have an optical drive i can lend you my copy

drives remain quite inexpensive but are no longer as ubiquitous a retail presence as they were only a few years ago, and as computer optical drives and stand-alone consumer optical disc devices disappear from stores the inexpensive acquisition of an optical drive is going to change faster than optical media fans such as myself are probably prepared for. small companies, especially in the audiophile market, will continue to service optical drives for niche markets, but those niche markets will have to pay a luxury price for their rejection of the mass market. we laugh at the weird names of craft beer companies started by bearded millennials and then get mad at the expensive results (re: the PC of ontario 'buck a beer' electioneering promise), but as the mass market quickly abandons optical media over the next seven years the same trend will apply for currently-obsolescing media forms such as music, films, and software on optical media (and magazines, newspapers, and books in print media). at that point, it will be increasingly difficult for media to be shared among people without passing through one of the corporate media streaming keyholes, controlled by shareholders who do not wish controversial media content to affect their bottom line, even if some consumers are willing to pay extra for the controversy. at the inception of its streaming service, Netflix was notorious for censoring much of the content it was distributing. while the Blockbuster chain of video stores was known to have censored some of the films it offered for rental, viewers could readily acquire media from other sources and play them on the same video device as used for watching videos rented at Blockbuster; furthermore, they were able to purchase unedited versions of films – otherwise known as the standard retail release – directly from Blockbuster itself. there was no way for Blockbuster’s corporate interests to limit a user’s ability to use their device; equally, there is no way for Netflix, iTunes, or any other streaming service to keep users from watching other streams. media consumers are however limiting themselves to the contemporary business arrangements of a very small number of corporations when they chose hardware incompatible with previously-established open standards such as optical discs. in short, gilles deleuze was correct in describing a 'control society' in which lives are voluntarily mediated by access rights

while desktop and laptop computers could eventually alter sufficiently to the extent that they are no longer useful as media consumption devices (looking at you, phones), it is likely that whatever happens to computers as work and leisure tools most homes will incorporate servers into their structure, much as they incorporated other once-separate technological functions such as delivering water and regulating heat. as a person is no longer likely to purchase or build a house without a furnace or central plumbing, future homeowners will likely view home servers as mandatory components of their domestic lives. given that such servers would likely follow developments from present server technologies, optical drives will indeed have a place in such computer platforms, if people want them to be there

do not ditch your streaming service subscriptions, but equally do not rush to ditch that bluray drive under your television, or choose a laptop, tablet, or other computational platform with no ports to attach external optical drives. for myself, it’s media apocalypse bunker time: next time i build a computer, i'm going to buy four or five extra optical drives and put them in storage. a drive lasts about ten years (smoke-free environments are key to the lifespan of electronics...), and properly stored those drives should keep future generations happy that we have been outlived by our libraries of media

[image from Wasteland 2 copyright inExile Entertainment]

Cinema, Television, and New Media -- comprehensive exam -- 24-hour essay 2

CINEMA, TELEVISION, AND NEW MEDIA
Question answered: #2. Are the essential distinctions (if they indeed exist) between media eroded by recent transformations in production and exhibition practice, and do specific media respond to these transformations in particular ways?

The twenty-first century has witnessed profound developments in the production and consumption of media. As Marshall McLuhan (1994), Harold Innis (1951), and Friedrich Kittler (1999) argue, the most profound transformation has been the introduction and development of electrical technologies to communications practices. With electricity came the possibility to reproduce perceptual experiences in order to enable such experiences as new media, distinct from the media associated with the reproduction of speech in written language. The most obvious examples in this regard involve the recording and distribution of sound and motion images. The development of technologies related to these perceptual activities quickly crystallized into media relative to fundamental technological differences; for example, radio and consumer recording formats distributed recorded sound (music, conversation, audio dramas), while film and television distributed recorded motion images along with accompanying sound (films, television shows). A further technological distinction centred upon speed and ease of accessibility can be made between distribution systems and consumption practices relative to such recordings. While this paper will illustrate a few arguments in favour of such essentialist determinations for the differences between media, ultimately a more flexible understanding of the ontology of media will be presented. Indeed, as this paper will demonstrate, it is computer technologies – and specifically home computer technologies – which signal the true transformation in media (and, by extension, mediation), largely due to the new forms of media which have emerged along with the technology.

Cinema demonstrates how definitions of media can be grounded in both essentialist and non-essentialist claims. Critical activity has focused on the manner in which the materiality of film production and reception practices defines the medium. Jean-Louis Baudry, for example, outlines an “apparatus” in which the production and reception of film takes place: the photographic process of inscription onto film by means of lenses and photochemistry, the optical projection of film onto a white screen, the spectator in the cinema (1986 288). For Baudry, grounded as he is in historical materialism, such an apparatus is an ideological one at each stage of production and reception. Consequently, any change in the orientation or constitution of this apparatus will alter the ideological effects which can be determined as a result. Christian Metz (1982) argues that the technological configuration of cinema is analogous to the processes of the human unconscious. Metz’s connection of psychoanalysis to a technological apparatus condemns his theory to obsolescence as the technologies which form that apparatus develop and new ones are introduced while old ones are subtracted (Manovich 294), as well as by developments in psychoanalytic theory which may subvert or emphasise the Freudian theoretical apparatus foundational to Metz’s work. The work of other scholars such as Laura Mulvey (1975) and Žižek (2004), who have deployed psychoanalytic readings to define cinema in less essentialist terms, has proven more adaptive to technological change. By means of a reading of Bergson’s conception of durée, and a reflexive negation of psychoanalytic theory (fully expressed in Anti-Oedipus), Deleuze (1989) argues that the gap between static images which enables the illusion of motion for cinema to occur temporalises the spectator, interpellating them into subjectivity by means of an affective involvement with the image (47), and anticipates montage, itself commonly understood (Metz 1985; Bordwell 1986; Elsaesser 2012) to be the grammar of cinema. Scholars such as Schatz (1989) and Elsaesser have extended the definition of this apparatus to include the hegemonic forces at play within the market. Both scholars define Hollywood as the articulation of a material and symbolic hegemony positioned to institutionalise and standardise its narrative forms, production processes, and distribution and consumption practices. Elsaesser argues that by means of their dominant position in the production and consumption of film, Hollywood can be seen to determine and define the medium of film as a whole into an experience between particular types of films and particular types of spectators, going so far as to state that the function of narrative in Hollywood films “lay in the resources and organizational assets which could be accumulated around it” (2012 152) and order audiences accordingly. These institutionalised forms actively displace certain forms and definitions for the medium while enabling others. As Bordwell, Doane (1989), and Adorno (1991) argue, film has come to be defined as a medium primarily by the market forces which affect its production, distribution, and consumption. Indeed, the same forces which integrate media companies into multinational conglomerates force the various media created and distributed by the newly integrated subsidiaries to interact, cross-pollinate, and subsume each other (Mattelart 2000). Indeed, Grossberg (1992) argues that popular culture, as the result of such processes of media hegemony, is a significant agent in the dilution of the boundaries between media.

Viewed as a whole, then, many of these definitions for cinema do not maintain their coherence in the wake of new technologies for the production and reception of film. One wonders, for example, how Deleuze’s elevation of the ‘ontological’ gap at the heart of the cinematic process if cameras recorded at much higher speeds than the twenty-four frames per second adopted as the standard for cinema by the 1920s. If Hollywood can be seen to adapt and incorporate elements of the avant garde and international and marginalised cinemas — which may themselves be empowered by being influenced by Hollywood – then what does it mean to define a medium around the dominant forces within it? In a similar manner, notions of spectatorship dependent on the public exhibition of films have been challenged by the private consumption of cinema by means of television and home video.

Indeed, as a medium for the reception of broadcasting as well as the device enabling other media such as home video and videogames, television considerably problematises essentialist boundaries between media.  Arguing in Television: Technology and Cultural Form (1990) that the serial and segmented nature of television programming is shaped to a considerable extent by television’s existence as a commercial entity, Raymond Williams identifies the concept of “flow” to define the medium (86). It is precisely this ephemeral and amorphous conception of television which has allowed the medium to adapt to technological change and the development of competing media such as film and the internet. Television, according to Williams, has the “technological capacity to absorb and circulate every kind of cultural energy” (Dienst 13). Furthermore, broadcast media such as television and radio, unlike other media, exist within what may be described as the perpetual present of their exhibition. While there is no technological reason for any broadcast medium to broadcast perpetually (twenty-four hours per day), an extension of Innis’s (1951) notion of the space bias of ephemeral media such as radio and television may explain the reasons behind this perpetual present, as the ease by which broadcast signals are ‘transported’ into the homes of consumers, as well as the fact that such media are consumed for ‘free’ in exchange for advertising (Browne 175), destines broadcast media to an existence of continuity. Furthermore, while film, ostensibly the closest analogue to television, can be understood as having incorporated aspects of theatrical and musical performance, painting, photography, dance, and literature, Williams argues that television can be understood as having further incorporated aspects of radio, journalism, advertising, and live spectatorship (1990 44ff). Television incorporates the many discreet aspects of itself – advertisements, announcements, news, “introductory and interstitial materials” – into what Nick Browne (1984) describes as a “supertext” whose essence is “one of flow, banality, distraction, and transience” (176), as spectators order their own viewing experience among a multiplicity of constitutive elements.

It is this multiplicity of function and form which differentiates broadcast media from non-broadcast media. According to Williams, unlike a book, a play, a song, or even a film, which constitute discreet objects and experiences, in broadcast media “the real programme that is offered is a sequence or set of alternative sequences” (1990 87). It should not then be surprising that as new technologies related to the distribution of television have developed, the notion of flow as foundational to television has been challenged. William Uricchio (2004) argues that “the present day’s convergent technologies, economies, and textual networks have ... subverted ... the logics of television [and] have also transformed the medium’s content and cultural place” (165). If, as Lynn Spigel suggests in Make Room for TV (1992), the introduction of television served to order spaces within the household and define television spectatorship along lines contingent with the consumption of consumer products, then it is possible to extend this interpretation to contemporary changes in forms and patterns of television spectatorship as contingent with changes to the home inaugurated by home computer technologies which are in the process of subsuming television into the internet. Disrupted first by technologies of home video recording and storage, the capacity for broadcasting to order the reception practices of spectators has been undermined by the digital distribution of television. Home video, on-demand and time-shifted video services, and internet streaming (as well as ‘illegal’ downloading) of television programming has further altered spectator relations to the television “supertext”. A recent example of a television show broadcast under two different configurations of television serves to illustrate this point. The British show House of Cards, broadcast as a mini-series in 1990, used a ‘cliff-hanger’ ending centred upon the murder of a prominent character by the show’s protagonist. The narrative significance of dramatic events such as this often provoked their deployment as ‘cliff-hangers’ at the end of television shows or seasons to provoke viewer anticipation of the next episode and encourage them to schedule future instances of viewership.[i] For the 2013 American remake, distributed (‘broadcast’) as an entire season without delay between episodes on the digital streaming subscription service Netflix, a similarly dramatic killing by the show’s protagonist is located in the middle of the first episode of the season, indicating that the event is structured in a manner suggesting the ‘binge watching’ habits typical of Netflix (and, by extension, digital streaming and home video) viewers.

Spigel argues that television served to “reassemble the splintered lives of families [and] .... reinforce the new suburban family unit” (1992 39) centred upon the new postwar consumer society. Ultimately, such changes were inaugurated by technologies of mobility and communication which extended ideations of inclusion and privacy from the home to a virtual space bounded by the reach of transportation and communications technology, which in turn orders the real space in which patterns of mobility and communication occur. Williams subsumes the social relations inaugurated by such technologies and living conditions under the concept of mobile privatisation, the social product of which is “[b]roadcasting in its applied form” (1990 20). Spigel thus traces the incorporation of the machine elements of industrial activity (dishwashers, sewing machines, etc.) into the home as contingent with “the spatial condensation of work and viewing” (1992 89), while Anna McCarthy (2001) outlines the incorporation of television into public spaces such as workplaces, transportation hubs, and shopping centres. By means of the surveillance and production of consumer activity, broadcast media such as television realise what Mark Andrejevic (2002) names “consumer labor” (230). Jhally and Livant (1986, quoted in Andrejevic) characterise the value exchange between viewers who watch ‘free’ programs and advertisers who pay for television programming as the “work of watching” (235). Such labor relations form the initial gesture of spectatorial participation which, as outlined below, will come to define the ontology of media.

As suggested by Spigel’s illustration of the extent to which daytime programming was informed by the daily chores performed by the women who were the primary audience, television was itself ordered by spectators as much as it ordered their patterns of viewership and stimulated the consumption of consumer goods. In other words, as television presented and ordered itself as a consumer product, audiences responded by altering television to meet their needs as consumers. As Matt Carlson (2006) illustrates, consumer products related to the consumption of television have altered not only patterns of viewership, but also the content of television programs. In this capacity, television can be seen to order time as well as space. First, home video recording freed television audiences from the broadcast schedule and, by means of the archival nature of video cassettes, allowed television programming to be reified as an object of secondary relation to television as a broadcast medium. The digitisation of television broadcasting as well as the development of digital video recorders capable of time-shifting and altering programming nearly in real-time has further transformed viewer interactions with television from a process of scheduling (viewers watching shows at specific times not under their control) to one of surveillance. For Carlson, surveillance indicates the manner in which digital broadcast technologies allow broadcasters to precisely monitor viewer activity and accordingly alter the products offered for viewing (102-103). In this capacity, it is possible to extend conceptions of ‘liveness’ related to the television “supertext” to the real-time surveillance of the audience itself. Arguably, the surveillance of digital television media merely extends to television producers the feedback processes between audience and performer which informed not only live studio television but also the live forms of performance (theatre, Vaudeville) which provided the content for television in its earliest years (Williams 64-65).

In a somewhat abstract manner, it is possible to locate ‘liveness’ as both reifying and enabling the structures of life described by mobile privatisation. In addition to Williams, other critics have also focused upon television’s ‘liveness’ as a distinguishing element of the medium. Jerome Bourdon (2000) argues that while ‘liveness’ was inherent to television before the advent of video storage technologies, live broadcasting has since been institutionalised as a means of affirming the hegemonic position of television broadcasters by providing a closure of space and time between event and spectator (534) and as a means to confer a degree of “‘authenticity’ and ‘truth’” (533) to the programs being broadcasted. Indeed, ‘liveness’, which incorporates the viewer into media exhibition, can be understood as the precursor to spectator participation. As Bourdon notes, “liveness should be interpreted as a development within media history as a whole” (551). He likens viewers switching to the news from other programs – multitasking between shows and other media – as a new form of liveness (553). Indeed, ultimately the ostensibly minimal amount of spectator participation demonstrated by television viewers using their remote control to order the sequence of television programming belongs on a continuum of interactivity and media control which leads to computational technologies which demand ‘spectatorial’ participation. In this context, Richard Dienst (1994) notes that the apparatus of television as constructed by Williams ignores “the possibility that the very notions of transmission and reception ... belong to the apparatus itself” (16). Accordingly, Williams’s conception of ‘flow’ in Television, whose publication predates the development of home video and home computer technologies, does not account for the capacity for audiences to construct and modify the programs they are watching. Notably, the capacity for commercial television to structure the ideological responses of viewers is undermined by the ability of viewers to ignore or remove advertising from shows and structure patterns of viewing around their personal schedules due to home recording and digital distribution, and ultimately use consumer digital video technologies to produce their own televisual content and distribute it on the internet. Indeed, the digitization of media undermines the ‘integrity of the medium’ not only for television and for television studies, but also for all media which undergo processes of digitization.

In Gramophone, Film, Typewriter (1999), Friedrich Kittler notes that the digitization of optical, acoustic, and writing media allows their “distinct data flows” to be reunited (170), and concludes his examination by identifying the computer as the logical conflagration of other media technologies and real-time computation, in the guise of “machine subjects”, as the contemporary terminus of the development of technologies of inscription (259). He rather boldly states his lack of respect for the distinction between media, noting that the traditional differentiations of media based on recording technology and human perceptual apparatus (seeing and hearing, for example) are fundamentally undermined by electric communications and recording technology. With the advent of digitisation, the variety of information forms “are reduced to surface effects, known to consumers as interface” (1). Indeed, it is by means of interface that consumers come to understand and differentiate digital media. Under the aegis of digitization, digital video, for example, is not an experience of ‘television’ or ‘cinema’; rather, it is enabled by the interface which exhibits it. The use of computers to consume audio, visual, and textual materials indicates that the screen-as-interface is more informative to understanding a mediated process than are traditional conceptions of media distinction grounded in differences in perceptual or recording technology. Television programming is easily adapted to distribution and ‘exhibition’ on the internet due to the fact that, in reductive terms, high-resolution computer screens make great high-resolution digital televisions.

More importantly than simply providing another platform for the distribution and consumption of audio-visual material incorporated from other media distribution apparatuses, home computer technologies signal the extent to which spectator participation has been incorporated into systems of media production and consumption. As Lev Manovich (2001) argues, the “meta-medium of the digital computer” (6) instantiates new media not dependent on perceptual or aesthetic characteristics but rather as “subject to algorithmic manipulation” (27). The algorithmic nature of digital media has two effects, the first of which serves to explain the transformational nature of digitisation. Manovich argues that digital media are modular, variable, and iterative, and in this capacity recent transformations in television broadcasting can be rationalised. The second effect of digital media is more philosophical in nature. In addition to signalling the increasing involvement of audiences into the ‘text’ of media on account of developments in the technologies of broadcasting, the above examination of television demonstrates McLuhan’s principle that all media contain within them previous forms of media. Of course, the incorporation of one medium within another is not a one-directional process of ‘new’ media incorporating ‘old’ media, as demonstrated by the incorporation of photography into newsprint. Rather, the response of cinema and television to the advent of computing technologies illustrates that media often deploy whichever other popular or useful media can be reasonably incorporated into them. From such a position, it is possible to extrapolate from Rick Altman’s suggestion regarding film that “[g]enres must be understood discursively” (1999 121) and conclude that media themselves function similarly as discursive practices.

One vector of such a discursive practice is indicated by the notable sense of determination present in McLuhan’s thought. The incorporation of media into new forms enabled by the development of technology implies what Walter Benjamin (1968) describes within history as the “weak Messianic power” (254) in which the past involves the present. Indeed, it is thus possible to read McLuhan’s belief that media subsume within them previous forms of media through a Heideggerian lens, as such a process describes what for Heidegger was the essence of all technology to gather into itself all forms of potential energies as “standing-reserve” (1977 24). In such terms, the destining of all media is toward a totalising sense perception and recording which reveals all possible information to the user. In order to fully understand the implications of computerisation on the media examined in this essay, we must turn to Dienst’s rather Platonic suggestion that “all actually existing television systems are in some sense a failed totalization of an ideal visuality” (1994 11). If the contemporary configuration of television has incorporated (or is being incorporated into) forms of digital content and distribution (i.e., the internet), then it is possible to position television, as Meyrowitz (1995) does, as a “widening of sensory experience” (40-41). Accordingly, contemporary forms of television incorporate aspects of visuality and ‘liveness’ from other media: news programming which, like the internet, structures textual information as visual elements; social media (message boards, Facebook, Twitter) interaction between viewers and show producers or fictional characters of dramatic programs, such as The Hills and General Hospital; and webcasts and podcasts which supplement or augment the broadcasting of shows. However, the digitization of media has had a more profound transformative effect on media than is represented by the increasing interaction between audiences and media content. It is possible to further extend Dienst’s notion of “ideal visuality” by means of Paul Virilio’s equation of processes and technologies of visibility with calculation, as elaborated in War and Cinema (1989) and The Information Bomb (2000). Arguing that technologies of visibility emerged as tools for war and the colonial organization of space, Virilio describes modes of visibility aided by computation as active optics (2000 14). Such optics exponentially increase the capacity for individuals to generate and process information, with the consequence that individuals will experience “a speed change in the order of time as it is lived” (1989 45), and thus “leave intact neither the old aesthetics ... nor the ethics” which came to define traditional media and the societies in which they circulate (2000 121).

As outlined above, the polyvalent nature of digital media, as algorithmic processes, fulfils the Heideggerian ‘gathering’ of the possibilities for vision into a singular technical apparatus enabling the successful realisation of “ideal visuality”. Home computer technologies involve media in a computational process which interpellates spectators as users. While videogames, software, and the internet represent the most obvious insertion of interaction and participation as an essential component defining the medium, these forms of media are merely the most contemporary articulations of long-extant trends in media. Consequently, it is difficult to determine contemporary communications media with the essentialist formulations which often served to inaugurate the critical apparatuses which arose in response to them.

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[i] It should be here noted that the ‘cliff-hanger’ serves a slightly modified purpose for the British House of Cards. By using such a narrative device at the end of a four-episode mini-series which was not intended for development into a broadcast series, the cliff-hanger ending serves (much like its use as a genre convention in horror films) to confer a mark of reality to the show by invoking in viewers a projection of the character from the temporality of the show ‘offscreen’ into the imagined temporal space ‘after’ the show ends.  

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