Through the analysis of classical mythology one rapidly becomes aware that many of the stories therein are vehicles through which the ancients expressed their moral convictions. In particular, each of the stories of Narcissus, Hippolytus and Phaedra, and Pygmalion and Galatea demonstrate classical beliefs about the nature of human sexuality. They present very specific gender roles to which civilized peoples should ascribe. In addition, each of the stories displays the consequences of deviating from such positions, from the destruction of the self to the ruin of others. Each of the characters presented in these myths becomes doomed once it is shown that they act in opposition to their specified gender roles. Often in myth godly intervention is required to reinstate such ideological sexual roles and restore order. Such repercussions affect both male and female characters equally severely, yet it is the women who digress from their prescribed roles much more frequently. Thus it can be seen that ancient Greeks and Romans, while not quite misogynistic, greatly feared the revolutionary power which women could possess.
The traditional classical view of sexuality consisted of passive females who accepted the love forced upon them by their male counterparts. After being 'conquered' in such a fashion, women were to become loyal and obedient housewives while their husbands became productive members of society. Such an ideology can be seen in the story of Pygmalion and Galatea (Hamilton 1942, 145-50). Pygmalion, choosing to scorn the company of common women because of their deficiencies (1942, 146), focused his energies and attention on his art--sculpture. He creates a statue of remarkable beauty in both detail and form, and was thereafter entranced. Galatea herself is the zenith of the feminine ideal: she is forced to accept his affections without opinion or complaint. The intent of the original story is clear: one can possess the more immediately appealing aspects of the female sex--physical beauty and delicacy--while avoiding such 'undesirable' traits as personality and individuality. For a male do acquire such a favourable wife he must create and shape her, he must conquer her will. She will then become permanently his and unable to provide him with anything but "unutterable gratitude and joy" (1942, 149-50). As exemplified by the optimistic ending to the myth of Pygmalion and Galatea, thereafter the couple will experience a joyous and fruitful marriage. From such an ideology it can be seen that while men achieve power through the conquest and consequent subjugation of women, females become empowered by their devotion and chastity. Thus those women who scorn promiscuity are given an elevated status, and accordingly they receive attention from the gods , as presented in the story of Narcissus (1942, 113-15). The virginal nymphs of the forest, followers of Artemis, were constantly being pursued by Zeus for carnal favours, who is himself the epitome of the conquering male. The nymphs are kept to their sexual roles by Hera who threatens divine punishment for any perversion; there is no mistaking that she is the patron of marriage and of married life. She is continually attempting to regulate and maintain the established sexual order and her governing is both supreme and just; accordingly she is indisputably the consummate partner for Zeus. Together they represent the paragon to which individuals and couples should aspire. Therefore it can be seen that classically defined sexual roles are divinely ordained and thus absolute.
Many stories relayed by classical poets are centred upon the misfortunes experienced by women who vigorously pursue their hearts and their lovers. By doing so they defy their 'naturally' assigned passive role and become deviant aggressors. Due to this unnatural behaviour, much anguish and disaster is destined to transpire. Thus when Phaedra feverously pursues her stepson Hippolytus (1942, 220-23), she dooms herself to suffering the harsh consequences of her actions. Her love for Hippolytus will not remain unfulfilled for the superficial reason of his chastity, instead such passion must be dispelled to ensure the natural order. Indeed, Phaedra is sorrowfully aware of her social malefaction and the dilemmas which will soon arise: "[s]he fell in love with him, madly and miserably, overwhelmed with shame at such a love.." (1942, 220). Thus, as Phaedra realizes the tragedy of her situation she sees only one manner by which she can escape from it--her death. Phaedra's suicide is her final attempt not only at reconciliation with her role as female and wife, as well it is an appeasement to her betrayal of her husband Theseus. It is notably ironic that Theseus would believe his wife's final message instead of his son. He remains unaware of his wife's betrayal until the damage of her actions becomes irreversible:
There ought to be a true yardstick to measure affection by...some means to know who
is to be trusted and who is not....look at my son--proved base by the hand of her who
is dead....Her letter outweighs any words he could speak. [Hippolytus is] in exile from
this land.
(1942, 220)
Theseus seems oblivious to Phaedra's abnormal behaviour, instead he believes Hippolytus to have acted as the violent conqueror over her affections; such would be true to son's instinctive sexual nature. Thus Theseus views the catastrophes experienced by his household as attributable to otherwise normal sexual conduct. Indeed such seems antithetical to the poet's desire to express his gender maxims, yet the opposite is the case. From his trust in her it can be seen that Theseus has placed his wife into her natural feminine role , yet he too must suffer the consequences of her actions not only through her death, but the consequent death of his son as well. Thus the reader becomes truly aware of the deplorable nature of Phaedra; such are the true threats of a woman who rejects her inherent sexual duties. Equally punished for such delinquent behaviour is the nymph Echo from the story of Narcissus. She is continually chattering and speaking her mind. While investigating Zeus's most recent romances, Hera becomes "diverted...by Echo's gay chatter" (1942, 113) and ignores the purpose of her inquiry. Hence the consequence of female self-expression is futility, and Echo is punished accordingly: she can only speak once spoken to. Thus when she pursues Narcissus for herself, she cannot speak to him. Echo is acting out her punishment: she cannot become independent of her feminine nature despite all her efforts to the contrary. Consequently Echo "hid her blushes and her shame in a lonely cave....she has so wasted away with longing that only now her voice is left to her" (1942, 114).
Such reprimands are not conferred merely upon female sexual deviants however. Males can be punished with the same degree of ferocity on the occasion that they deviate from their prescribed sexual nature. In such cases male characters usually disdain women and thus prefer to remain chaste. A male who is raised in the classical world and shows himself to be impotent has become conquered himself. Such an abhorrently non-sexual male cannot properly exist within the classical context and is accordingly condemned. One such character is Narcissus who "would pass the loveliest [girls] carelessly by" (1942, 113). By refraining from the conquest of women he doomed himself to self-torment. Responding to a prayer from one of those women whom Narcissus wounded, the goddess Nemesis caused him to become enamoured by his own reflection in a pool of water and there sit until his death. Symbolically, much can be established of such an occurrence. Nemesis herself is the divine figure of righteous anger, an obvious selection to set the aberrant youth aright; ultimately it is just and inevitable that he is punished in such a fashion. In particular, it is suitable that Narcissus becomes infatuated by his own image, yet never able to consummate that love: what others have sought but could not obtain is unattainable to him as well. Even in death his soul remained unattainable: the nymphs seeking his body for burial did so in vain. Thus Narcissus was lost to his own depravity. While superficially dissimilar to the punishment of Narcissus, the fate of Hippolytus is equally deleterious. He too hated romantic love, instead adopting the path of the chaste hunter-goddess Artemis. Although his death was directly attributable to Phaedra's treachery, more figuratively he was condemned for a very similar rationale as Narcissus. His anomalously passive nature could not be allowed to persist in such a strictly dictated moral world as classical literature presents, most especially since he was the son of one of the great Greek heros, Theseus. Thus it is equitable that Hippolytus be condemned to exile and death; it is in such a manner that civilised order is re-established.
Classical mythology is exceedingly direct in its presentation of various characters and events; the stories relayed are readily understandable. Yet there is much that lies beneath the seemingly simplistic exterior of these myths. Many of the stories present precisely defined ethics and the consequences of defying them. Such is presented in the myths of Narcissus, Hippolytus and Phaedra, and Pygmalion and Galatea, wherein the nature of human sexuality is defined. They portray a sexual hierarchy in very concrete terms: the male is to dominate the female. Both sexes should be aware of their station and act accordingly. As these myths exhibit, the consequences for disobeying such sexual roles are quite severe. While the relevance of such a sexual hierarchy to modern society cannot be completely justified, in order to fully comprehend classical literature one must place himself into the mindset of the contemporary readers of the classical era and thus accept such a structure.
NOTES
Referring to classical mythology presently and henceforth, the term is meant to imply content from both the Greek and Roman literature. The literary content of this essay is drawn from Edith Hamilton's Mythology (1942), who has taken from the Greek dramatists Euripides and Sophocles and the Roman poet Ovid.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Hamilton, Edith. Mythology. Boston, United States of America: Little, Brown and Company,
1942.
